Chapter 3 – Freud to Derrida
Section 1 – Freud and psychoanalysis
- · In the nineteenth century, with the presence of Kant and Hegel, philosophy was at the height of interest. Each country in Europe spoke English at this time making communication with other philosophers was relatively simple. However, by the twentieth century all of this had changed. Most philosophers went their separate ways and separate countries began to establish their own ideologies. It is in this period that Bertrand Russell (the writer of our core text for year 1) became particularly dominant in academic circles in and around Britain & America. The attempt to bring together methods of philosophising throughout Europe had very little success in the second half of the century.
- · Sigmund Freud was a philosopher from the 1890’s. Freud, however, never classed himself as a philosopher, he saw himself as a scientist. He took this a step further and classed himself as ‘the inventor of a new science’. Freud’s ideas and methods were so influential that all those teaching philosophy of ethics, mind or religion were forced to take into account what he had to say.
- · Freud studied at a university in Vienna where he became medically trained specializing in Brain Anatomy. During his time here he spent some time working with neurologist Joseph Breuer, expanding his knowledge treating hysterical patients under hypnosis. A few years latter he then moved to Paris to further his studying under neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. When Freud’s studying in Paris came to its conclusion he went into private medical practise.
- · In 1895 together with Breuer, Freud published a book that explored the original analysis of mental illness. As his practise progressed Freud stopped using hypnosis as a method of treatment. He replaced it with a new form of treatment called psychoanalysis. This practise was described by Freud as “nothing more than an exchange of words between the patient and the doctor.” The reason for this new found method came from Freud’s realisation that the hysterical symptoms were a result of memories from a psychological trauma that the patient may have repressed. Freud says that these memories can be brought to light by a process of ‘free association’. The patient would lie on the couch and asked to say whatever came to mind. Freud convinced himself through many sessions that all traumas leading to hysterical symptoms came from infancy. He also convinced himself that they were of a sexual nature. These theories caused problems with Breuer.
- · Because he lost friendship with Breuer, Freud was in practise by himself. During this time wrote one of his well known books The Interpretation of Dreams. In this book he argues that dreams are nothing but expressions of hidden sexual desires. In this instance however, Freud concluded that this was not only applicable to sufferers of hysterical symptoms, it was also applicable to normal people too. H followed up this book with The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. This book and the many others to follow simply expanded and refined Freud’s psychoanalytic theories.
- · In 1923 Freud published a book that explored a whole new approach on the unconscious mind; The Ego and the Id. Freud separates psychoanalytic theory into two separate works. The first is that the big parts of our minds such as feeling and thought are unconscious. The second is that sexual impulses are not only important as the causes of mental illness, they are important as the mechanism for artistic and cultural creation. He believes that if the sexual element of a work of art or culture stays in the unconscious it is because socialization makes us think it must stay inside our heads. He goes on to say we channel these thoughts into socially acceptable activities and because we aren’t letting these thoughts surface they can rebel on us and lead to mental illness or some sort of disorder.
- · Freud believed that all dreams are a message from our unconscious beings. He believed, as I have previously mentioned, that these unconscious centred on sexual development. One of Freud’s weirdest theories was that every man, from the age of infancy, is attracted to his mother and therefore resents his own father for the ‘possession’ of his mother. I use the term ‘possession’ lightly as I do not believe a woman can be ‘owned’ because they are not an object. He follows this point by stating that because of the greatness of a boy’s hostility towards his father, his father will sense this fear and punish him by castration, causing the boy to fear his father. As a result, the infant boy casts aside any feelings for his mother and becomes close with his father during the growing up process. This is what Freud called the Oedipus stage, a crucial emotional point in a young boy’s life. Freud believes that people who become fixated on these thoughts from child hood will show signs of neuroticism. Freud was adamant that there was a female equivalent, but never fully worked it out or came close to explaining it in convincing terms.
- · The most famous of Freud’s theories was the three fold explanation and idea that he had complied about the unconscious. He wrote it all in a book called The Ego and the Id. He believed there were 3 main components to our unconscious; the Id, the part that is in charge of our irrational impulse thoughts, the super ego, the part that tells the Id that he can’t do all the things he wants because they are bad and the ego, the part that mediates between the two, that part that keeps harmony between the super ego and the Id. It’s when this harmony is lost that Freud believes mental illness occurs.
It’s this theory that dominates the opinions people have of Freud today.
Chapter 8 – Philosophy of the mind.
Section 1. Bentham on Intention and Motive.
· Bentham’s approach on Intention and Motive is sometimes related to that of Aquinas. In his book Principles of Morals and Legislation, he paid great attention to people’s morals and opinion, and why they say and do the things they say and do. Aquinas believed that actions made by a person are intentional if they are a ‘means to an end’. He also believed that there was a second reasoning for someone to do make an action. ‘Voluntary’ actions are actions we have to make in order to survive.
o For example;
§ A intentional action – I’m going to eat toast this morning for my breakfast, I have to eat to survive but today I want toast.
§ A voluntary action – I’m going to get out of bed because I have to get out of bed.
· Bentham didn’t like the use of the word voluntary because it is a misleading phrase. He said this because sometimes when an action is ‘Voluntary’ it is spontaneous, we don’t necessarily think about what we are doing, therefore making it non-intentional. Other times however other voluntary actions can be classed as uncohersed, willing to take the action.
· Although there are a few disgressions between Bentham and Aquinas theories, they both distinguish two separate motivations for actions. Bentham took this one step further and said that each consequence is either ‘directly intentional’ or ‘obliquely intentional’.
· Bentham used the death of King William II who died from a hunting wound caused by Sir Walter Tyrell. Bentham used his ideas on the consciousness and intention to conclude what Tyrell was thinking when the incident happened. He categorised and classified Tyrell’s thoughts in 5 different categories; unintentional, obliquely intentional, directly intentional, mediately intentional and ultimately intentional.
· Bentham used terminology such as this to define intention itself. In order to understand why a person does the things they do, you first need to understand what that person what’s to come from the action. However, an action is only unintentional if the consequence of an action cannot be foretold or predicted. Bentham also goes on to say that a person can only be judged on how bad or good their actions are dependant on the consequence of their action.
· Bentham establishes that although a man’s intention may be good, the motive for that said intention may be bad. This theory can also be reversed.
Section 2 – Understanding and Will
· Kant’s ideas offer a clear distinction between understanding and reason. His studies focus upon the differences between human and animal cognitive faculties. Understanding and sensation are two traits that relate humans and animals together. Kant believes that because animals are capable of making casual relations they are therefore able to relate to sensation like humans. Animals differ from humans as they are unable to function the trait of reason. Humans can reflect on their own actions. This places humans above animals in both power and suffering. Kant says tat animal only live in the present but humans live in the past, present and the future. Reason also allows humans to obtain 3 ‘gifts’; language, freedom and science. The most important of the 3 is language as it is the most essential to everyday life.
· Abstract knowledge is not always needed for everyday tasks. Humans do not necessarily need to understand the functioning of each task me partake in. Humans do however need to know how to make something work, not how it actually works. Both animals and humans have wills.
Section 4 – The Freudian Unconscious
· Freud believed that everyone has a unconscious mind. He said there are 3 proofs that our unconscious mind exists; slight slips of the tongue, the recollection of dreams and neurotic symptoms. However he claims these are ‘parapraxes’, that these little slips and mistakes have a hidden motive. By understanding the beliefs of the person who has made the ‘Freudian slip' we can understand their motive for this slip.
· DREAMS - Freud says that dreams are almost always the fantasy of a supressed wish. Good dreams that we remember are symbols of satisfaction whereas Nightmares are the exact opposite of these good dreams. Freud stated that every dream is specific to each individual dreamer, therefore making it impossible to uncode and figure out its true meaning. Only until you find out what each part on someone’s dream signifies to that individual, can you start to understand why they dreamt that way.
· NEUROTIC SYMPTEMS – these symptoms can be revealed when you find the reason for doing something. Freud mentions a ‘friend’ that became obsessed with losing weight. Only until Freud found out that that his friend’s fiancé was staying at the same resort with a ‘attractive’ male friend, did he uncover that this was the unconscious reason that his friend wanted to lose weight.
· There are three levels of Freudian unconscious; the ID, super ego and the ego. The ID is the part of the unconscious that is controlled by the principle. The ego is the part of the unconscious that focussing on common sense and reasoning. And the super ego is the part of the unconscious that punishes the ego with feelings of guilt.
Section 5 – Philosophical Psychology in the Tractatus · Wittgenstein believed that a thought is a logical picture of beliefs. He identifies thoughts as propositions. In his theories there are two elements involved. There is propositional sign or sentence. There is also what is expressed from the propositional sign.
